However, even though they weren't the first, the Honolulu Japanese Sake brewery was more successful, more long lasting, and left a much greater legacy than any other of the early Sake breweries in the U.S. In fact, for many of these first breweries, we know little more than the most basic of information, such as their name and location. The Honolulu Japanese Sake Brewery Co. wasn't the first but I don't think anyone will argue that it wasn't the most important.
As few people know about these early Sake breweries, I wanted to explore the fascinating history of these first Sake breweries as well as to look at our country’s introduction and perception of this intriguing Japanese alcohol. I'll also explore some of the failed attempts to establish Sake breweries, including in
. Plus, this tale will also relate some of the story of the Japanese immigration to Hawaii and the U.S., as it was central to Sake’s existence in this country.
The first Sake brewery in the U.S. was incorporated in 1901, and others were established over the next twenty years, until the start of
. Then, once Prohibition was repealed, a few Sake breweries restarted operations while other new breweries sprung up. However, they all needed to close with the start of World War II. After the war, a few Sake breweries returned, although only one lasted through the 1970s and beyond. The end of the 1970s would also see two new Sake breweries, issuing in the start of the modern phase of U.S. Sake breweries.
I'm sure you'll find plenty of fascinating information which is new to you, and which will broaden your understanding of Sake and its vibrant history in this country. In 2026, the U.S. will celebrate the
of the incorporation of the Japan Brewing Co., the first U.S. Sake brewery, once located in Berkeley, California.
The original version of this article was first posted in April 2015, and has seen multiple expansions and revisions over the years due to additional research. Most recently, in 2024, I've added a significant expansion to this article. I've also chosen to break up the lengthy article into four Parts, to make it easier to read and handle. Additional research is certainly warranted and there will continue to be additional expansions/revisions in the future.
Initial Impressions of Sake in the U.S.
When did Japanese Sake first arrive in the U.S.? We might never know the exact answer but we can speculate. The first Europeans likely to have tasted Japanese Sake were two or three Portuguese merchants whose ship, in 1542 or 1543, was forced by the weather to land on the Japanese island of Tanegashima. Lord Tanegashima Tokitaka feted these men, and it seems logical that the sailors were presented Sake, an alcoholic beverage made from rice, that was an integral element of Japanese life. It's also in 1543, when it's claimed that the Japanese of Tanegashima were introduced to European firearms.
During the next several years, other Portuguese merchants journeyed to Japan and around 1547, Captain Jorge Alvares wrote a report on his visit to Japan, mentioning Sake. This might have been the earliest known European record mentioning Sake. In The Christian Century in Japan, 1549-1650, by C.R. Boxer (1951), it was noted that Alvares “... never saw anyone much the worse for liquor, since, when a man had had enough rice wine (sake) he lay down and slept it off.”
Other Europeans also wrote about Japan during the second half of the 16th century and into the 17th century, and there would be a number of references to Sake, although the references were most often in Portuguese and Dutch. It's likely that some Sake thus ended up in Europe, brought by merchants, sailors and others who had visited Japan. In the 18th century, there is some evidence that Sake was being exported to Europe, through the Dutch East India Company, but it seemed to still be more of a rarity than anything else.
As for the U.S., the odd Sake container might have shown up as early as the 18th century, an oddity brought in by a merchant, missionary or world traveler, though I'm unaware of any documentary evidence to prove that occurred.
In wasn't until 1840 or 1841, when the first Japanese may have come to the U.S. According to the Fall River Daily Herald, December 10, 1898, Captain William H. Whitfield, master of the ship John Howland of Fairhaven, Massachusetts, found himself in the Japan Sea when he sighted five Japanese sailors clinging to a rock in the sea. They claimed to have been there for about 70 days, and Captain Whitfield brought the men to Honolulu. Obviously, these shipwrecked Japanese wouldn't have had any Sake after 70 days of survival on that barren rock.
The youngest of the five was a 15 year old, Nakahama Manjiro, and he wanted to remain on this ship, which Captain Whitfield permitted. The boy, who later was called "John Mun" or "John Mungrove," attended U.S. schools and was an excellent student. He eventually became a naturalized American citizen, probably the first Japanese to receive that distinction.
However, he was the target of racism. For example, “There was always some prejudice against him, for he was looked upon as a colored lad, and the color line was sharply drawn in those days. When he sought to attend church with Capt. Whitfield, for instance, he was refused permission until he went to the Unitarian,…” Around 1846 or 1847, Manjiro went on a whaling expedition and then headed to San Francisco to mine gold, where he remained for only a few months.
Manjiro wanted to return to Japan, and left Hawaii, with four other native Japanese, despite the fact he would face a death sentence in Japan. Around 1635, Japan passed an edict preventing any Japanese from traveling to a foreign country, upon pain of death. And if a Japanese returned home, after having lived in another country for a time, he too would face execution. However, Majiro was fortunately accepted in Japan, became a samurai, and worked as an interpreter. He also helped to develop the Japanese navy. In 1870, he returned to the U.S. for a brief trip, visiting Massachusetts, and then returned to Japan.
The first U.S. newspaper reference that I've found concerning Sake was in the Georgetown Advocate (D.C.), March 19, 1842, in an article concerning Japanese customs. The article made some general comments about Japanese beverages, such as, “Every Japanese beverage is drunk warm water included.” The article also stated that, “… poor gin and excellent coin-brandy are drunk; and there is a fermented red juice from the grapes of wild vines; but it is not wine.”
Sake was mentioned, although it wasn’t described, in a section on Japanese gambling. In one game, a puppet was floated in a vessel of water and bets were taken on which direction it would move. “As it turns, penalties of sakee-drinking are imposed for wrong guesses; and thus the men get drunk with sakee, and sober themselves with tea, as a few folks do elsewhere; but the Japanese outsit us by repeating the two processes—sakee and tea, and tea and sakee, until they are carried away insensible.”
Finally, the article also mentioned Sake in the context where criminals, who were to be executed, would share Sake and other refreshments with their friends before they were executed.
A few other newspapers would briefly reference Sake during the 1840s. For example, the Philadelphia Inqurier (PA), November 30, 1847, referenced once again that in some Japanese games, including chess and draughts, the loser had to drink a cup of Sake. The article also claimed, “… they are occasionally so virtuous and so valiant in their submission to the law of the game, that the proud and temperate orientals are carried off by the servants like so many baskets of leavings.”
However, most Americans probably first heard about Sake in the news when Commodore Matthew C. Perry helped to open Japan up to international trade and diplomacy. In July 1853, Commodore Perry sailed into Uraga Bay, in the Kanagawa Prefecture, with four large warships, two of which were steam frigates. As they released black smoke into the air, and their hulls were painted with a dark sealant, the Japanese referred to these ships as kurofune, the “black ships.”
The U.S. government had three primary objectives at this time, including establishing trade relations with Japan. They also wanted some protections for American citizens who might be shipwrecked on Japanese shores. Finally, they desired to establish coal depots in Japanese ports, especially as Japan had much coal.
Commodore Perry made his pitch to the Japanese, and promised to return the next year for their official answer. In February 1854, Perry returned, although with eight war ships this time, a show of force. On March 31, the Kanagawa Treaty was signed, the first formal agreement between Japan and a Western country. This achieved two of America’s objectives, including establishing two coal deports, and creating protections for shipwrecked sailors. It did not establish trade relations though.
However, in 1858, Consul General Townsend Harris, the first resident American diplomat in Japan, negotiated a formal trade agreement, the U.S.-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce. One effect of these treaties with Japan was to start bringing more information about Japanese culture to Americans, including concerning Sake.
Numerous articles about Perry’s visits to Japan appeared in American newspapers all across the country. For example, the Weekly National Intelligencer, November 5, 1853, which discussed the visits of Commodore Matthew Perry to Japan, mentioned they received "presents of saki and cake." Several other subsequent newspaper articles, concerning Perry's visits to Japan, also mentioned Sake, commonly referring to it as saki.
The Philadelphia Inquirer (PA), January 17, 1854, published an article on Japanese wedding customs, noting, “They spend the evening drinking sakee, a wine made from rice, accompanied with numerous and minute formalities,…” The New York Times, June 13, 1854, talking of Perry’s visit, noted, “At a sign given the servants in attendance brought in lacquered stands with tea and saki.”
The New York Daily Herald, June 27, 1854, was the first article to actually give a basic definition of Sake, rather than a brief mention, stating,“The extract from rice is now the only liquor known in Japan. It is called saki by them. Hence they gave the name of “American saki” to all the drinks. They are fond of ardent spirits. The guests made it a business to taste of every wine and of every dish.”
Cold Sake! The Daily Evening Star (DC), July 24, 1854, in an article on Perry’s expedition, mentioned, “… hot and cold saki, or spirits, being supplied all the while.” This is interesting as it indicates that hot Sake was not the only option at this time, and that some Japanese enjoyed cold Sake too. Hot Sake was far more dominant, but cold Sake still existed.
The Pittsburgh Daily Post, September 13, 1854, mentioned that “The ‘Journal of Commerce’ is showing the vast advantages American commerce is destined to derive from intercourse with the Japanese. Exports from that country, we are told, at present consist of….rice, saki, soy; ..” Thus, it seemed possible that as trade with Japan began, it was possible that Sake could soon be exported to the U.S. And the first Sake shipment to U.S. probably came two years later.
In addition, The Daily Globe (D.C.), October 10, 1854, quoting an article from the New York Tribune, briefly mentioned, “The Japanese make their beer called saki, of rice.”
The New York Tribune, October 17, 1855, ran an article about marriage ceremonies in Japan, which included the use of Sake. It was said, "The formality of the marriage consists in drinking saki after a peculiar manner. The saki is poured out by two young girls, one of whom is called the male butterfly, and the other the female butterfly — appellations derived from their susu, or saki jugs, each of which is adorned with a paper butterfly. As these insects always fly about in pairs, it is intended to intimate that so the husband and wife ought to be continually together. The male butterfly always pours out the saki to be drank, but before doing so, turns a little to the left, when the female butterfly pours from her jug a little saki into the jug of the other, who then proceeds to pour out for the ceremony. For drinking it three bowls are used, placed on a tray or waiter, one within the other. The bride takes the uppermost, holds it in both hands, while some saki is poured into it, sips a little, three several times, and then hands it to the groom. He drinks three times in like manner, puts the bowl under the third, takes the second, hands it to be filled, drinks out of it three times, and passes it to the bride. She drinks three times, puts the second bowl under the first, takes the third, holds to be filled, drinks three times, and then hands it to the groom, who does the same, and afterwards puts this bowl under the first. This ceremony constitutes the marriage.” It continued, "The saki, with other refreshments interspersed, is then served by the two butterflies to those relations of the married parties in a prescribed order, indicated by the mediator.”
Harper's New Monthly Magazine, December 1855, published an article about Perry's visit to Japan, and stated, "The native sakee, which is a potent liquor, not unlike whisky, divides with the beverage 'that cheers but not inebriates' the honors of a general appreciation. On the arrival of a guest, he is expected to accept of either tea or sakee, or of both."
Even before the official trade treaty was made in 1858, some Japanese exports started to make their ways to U.S. shores. Maybe the first Sake shipment to the U.S. came in February 1856. The Sacramento Daily Union, February 18, 1856 indicated the receipt of a shipment of “Forty dozen imperial cordial Saki." No further description was provided, although it seems possible they might have been in jars or wooden tubs.
The Times-Picayune (LA), March 14, 1856, mentioned that another ship arrived with a delivery of Sake, which is described as, "a liquor in pint jars called Saki which is not at all hard to take. It is like the Dutch maraschino and of the color of cider. It was bought at eighteen cents a jar.”
However, it seemed that these Sake shipments were uncommon, more of a unique curiosity, that occasionally got imported into the U.S. I didn't find evidence of any regular or large shipments of Sake during this period.
The Augusta Weekly Constitutionalist (GA), April 23, 1856, in a discussion of Perry’s visit to Japan, described a Japanese feast, where “… the silver vessels which contained the national drink of sakee—a kind of whisky distilled from rice—were kept diligently replenished. The sakee cups are mere thimbles in capacity….but the Japanese have acquired by practice such a facility in filling and emptying them, that they evidently lose nothing for want of larger goblets.”
Other articles about Perry’s visit also briefly mentioned Sake. The Albany Evening Journal (NY), September 6, 1856, noted that “… in the centre was an earthen pot filled with sakee (the intoxicating drink…).” The Alexandria Gazette (VA), March 14, 1857, noted that “… during the entertainments, warm saki was freely passed around. This saki, which is made from rice, is the national drink, and is very palatable.” The Republican Farmer (CT), November 13, 1857, reported on Perry’s visit to the home of a Japanese mayor, where his wife and sisters generally knelt but, “This position did not seem to interfere with their activity, for they kept running about very briskly with the silver saki kettle, the services of which in consequence of the smallness of the cups, were in constant requisition.”
Sake theft! The New York Herald (NY), October 30, 1858, reported on over 40 American whalers who landed at the Japanese port of Hakodadi (now Hakodate). It was noted that there were two or three “distilleries” in the port, “… for the manufacture of saki, of which there are two kinds—the strong and the sweet.” Two of the whalers were subsequently imprisoned in Japan, one for stealing Sake, and he was sentenced to one year’s hard labor.
The Sacramento Daily Union, July 30, 1859, mentioned, “The Japanese are very hospitable, and when you enter their houses not only offer you refreshment, consisting of cake, confectionery, sakee, or tea, but insist upon your taking away with you what you do not eat—a Japanese custom.”
A Sake slushy? The Daily Alta California, January 7, 1860, discussed the region of Fusi-yama Mountain, located near the bay of Yedo in Japan. The article stated, “I am told, at its base, where the traveler can obtaln at the inns a drink of saki, cooled by the snows brought from this lofty summit, and those who have tasted the mixture pronounce it equal to the famed ices of Tortoni, of the boulevard des Italiens, Paris.”
The True Flag (MA), January 21, 1860, published an interesting article on Japanese food, noting, “The saki is a weak and sweetish liquor, made of rice, and is drank both hot and cold. It prevails as a beverage almost as universally as tea. Though often urged, I could never succeed in swallowing more than a sip or two of it, it was so exceedingly insipid and unpleasant to my palate. Others, however, and perhaps better judges of liquor than myself, pronounced it excellent.” Again, we see that some drank cold Sake.
The California Farmer and Journal of Useful Sciences, March 30, 1860, briefly noted, “The Japanese, however, are fond of liquor, but have the modesty and good sense to drink it in their own houses, and at night.”
In 1860, the shogun sent a delegation of high-ranking officials to the U.S. to ratify the Treaty of Amity and Commerce and meet with American officials, including President James Buchanan. The New York Tribune (NY), May 4, 1860, reported on the arrival of these officials on a U.S. steam ship. They were worried that their Sake might not remain good during their lengthy trip, but the paper noted, “They were satisfied on this point when one of the officers produced some that he had bottled two years ago, and which they declared to be really old particular saki.”
The Japanese embassy visited Washington, D.C. and the New York Times (NY), May 15, 1860, reported, “... the population is on tiptoe of expectation, in view of the coming delegation from the Empire of the Rising Sun.” The article continued, “… the devotees of Bacchus reveling in the possible flowing of rivers of ‘sakee’ on honor of the nation’s guests,”
The New York Semi-Weekly Tribune (NY), May 29, 1860, also discussed this visit, noting that one of the Japanese poured “a teaspoonful or two of clear red liquor" from a “long bottle.” "This is the ‘Saki,’ or wine of the Japanese. With fitting seriousness the saki rises, approaches the several mouths, and disappears. It well relieves the remembrance if the recent sirooko, for its pungent spice and gentle sweetness recommend themselves very favorably, even to American senses. In more sincerity, this is declared a tranquilizing and cheering draught.” The Richmond Dispatch, May 30, 1860, added, “The Saki, or wine of the Japanese, is of a clear red color, and is drank from very small cups. It has a tranquilizing and cheering effect.” It curious that the Sake was said to be red, as it's usually relatively clear, although this could have been a special Sake that was actually red in color.
The Evening Post (NY), May 22, 1860, briefly stated, “In Japan intoxication is unknown. Their common drink is saki, a distillation rice, but the Japanese prefer our manufactured liquors to their national beverage,..” The New Orleans Crescent, July 11, 1860, discussed a small party that occurred before the Japanese delegation left town. It noted, “...every one present became as jolly a good fellow as champagne, sakee and punch could make him.”
The Pacific Commercial Advertiser (HI), July 26, 1860, printed, “I have never seen but one instance of intoxication among the Japanese; still they are fond of intoxicating liquors, and by the influence of example, and solicitation in respectable and honorable circles, can easily be seduced into the most ruinous habits. Their common and favorite drink is saki, a distillation of rice, which in strength is about equal to old Sherry wine. They easily, however, exchange it for champagne and other wines, and rum, whisky and brandy.”
A number of newspaper articles would state that the Japanese rarely got drunk, at least in Japan, although other newspaper articles would allege significant problems due to drunk Japanese in the U.S.
For about six months, from September 1860 to February 1861, there were ads in numerous newspapers for “Paul’s Oriental Saki or Japanese Tonic.” The above advertisement, from the Daily Journal (NC), October 10, 1860, noted that “Paul’s Oriental Saki or Japanese Tonic” was, “The favorite beverage of the tycoon and nobility of Japan, a delicious aromatic wine, medicated with mild and bracing tonics, highly recommended for nervousness, indigestion and invalids generally.” I'll note that "tycoon" was corruption of the Japanese term "Taikun," and referred to the Shogun of Japan.
The creator of this produce was Stephen Paul and some of the ads simply referred to it as “Japanese Tonic.” Unfortunately, I've been unable to find any more information about this "tonic." I don't know what ingredients were in the tonic, and whether it actually contained Japanese Sake or not.
The Cincinnati Daily Press, October 27, 1860, mentioned an auction sale of Chinese and Japanese goods, which included, “Rattan-covered saki bottles.” The Baltimore Sun, November 1, 1860, also advertised an auction sale of Japanese goods; including “Sakee Bottles.” The Sun (MD), November 10, 1860, advertised an auction sale of "superb Japanese goods," including "sakee bottles." Though none of these bottles were described, it seems likely they’re refering to tokkuri, typical ceramic flasks used to pour sake. The Polynesian (HI), December 15, 1860, printed an advertisement for a shop that sold Japanese goods, including “Saki cups.”
Cold Sake once again. The Holmes County Republican (OH), February 28, 1861, discussed a dinner that was held in Japan for some American visitors. It was noted, “Cold saki of two kinds, sweet and acrid, was profusely served towards the close of the feast, …”
The Church Journal (NY), September 17, 1862, printed a letter from a medical missionary in Japan, which mentioned, “Apopplexy, in its different forms, may be accounted for by the exposure of the shaven skull to a fiery burning sun; by the enormous drafts of saki drunk by many individuals almost every night before retiring (I know a man who was in the habit of drinking about eight pints every night;..” Apoplexy generally referred to a stroke or brain hemorrhage.
The True Flag (MA), October 31, 1863, stated, “Cups of saki, a spirit distilled from rice, are handed round, and some people think it very palatable or potable. It is quite as good (or bad) as the Chinese samshu or wine, however, and very much the same kind of thing.”
The Daily Alta California, February 17, 1868, printed, “Saki and chow-chow were supplied bountifully by the wealthier classes, and the commonalty had a gleeful holiday. Japanese joy seeks expression, and Saki, like the stronger liquors of civilized nations, is a key which unlocks the tongues of these usually quiet and reserved Asiatics; so that when "the elephant walked around and the band began to play," they filled the air with a song,..”
Japanese Sake food pairings? The New York Times, July 31, 1868, discussed life in Japan, and the article mentioned, “Saki was brought in. It is slightly alcoholic, and its taste is such as might be expected of a mixture of rum and sherry wine. It is always served hot, and from the tiny cups in use one may drink many a bumper and not feel it. With the saki came, as usual, fried eels, oranges and boiled snails, ..” So, those three items were common accompaniments with Sake, and they certainly are a diverse trio.
The Sacramento Daily Union (CA), November 25, 1868, discussed a visit to Hiogo (aka Kobe), and described Sake as the "bourbon whisky" of Japan. The article continued, “It is made out of rice, very similar to the manner in which we make whiskey from rye. There are about thirty distilleries in one street, in each of which thousands of gallons of saki are stowed away, not in casks or barrels, but in a sort of bucket or pannier.” The article also presented a negative image of Sake, stating: "Saki is a transparent, yellowish liquid, extremely sharp, extremely intoxicating, and particularly disagreeable and unpleasant to the taste."
During the next 50-60 years, newspapers would vary in their descriptions, some claiming Sake was extremely intoxicating while others stating it was only mildly intoxicating.
Some articles also took more of a middle road view.
The Waterbury Daily American (CT), January 9, 1869, noted, “The stimulating drinks of the Japanese are prepared from rice, and are generally known to foreigners under the name of sakee. They vary much in strength and flavor probably to as great an extent as our own wines. Sakee is generally drink warm. Some kinds resemble the pale sherry in color, and are by no means disagreeable; others are very strong, and their effect is soon seen on the people, numbers of whom are unhappily addicted to drinking—even the women indulging in this vicious habit.”
More negativity against the Japanese. The Boston Daily Advertiser (MA), July 7, 1869, briefly mentioned, without any supporting evidence, that, “Of the 80,000 inhabitants of Nagasaki, 48,000 get drunk every night on saki, which is Japanese for rice whiskey.”
************
As a brief diversion, let's take a look at the Japanese-English and English-Japanese Dictionary by James Curtis Hepburn, M.D., LL.D. (2nd edition-1872). He provided a significant list of Sake and drinking related terms, many which I've listed below. It's fascinating to see how many Sake-related terms the Japanese used, such as Sakate, money for buying sake. It's also intriguing to see the term Sasa, which is another word for Sake, but it was used only by women.
Ama-zake: Sweet sake, a kind of drink made of fermented rice
Atsu-gan: Hot sake
Cho-shi: A metal kettle used for warming sake.
Hiya no sake: Cold sake.
Kan-nabe: A pot for warming sake.
Miki: Sake offered to the Kami
Moromi-zake: A kind of sake, in which the rice-grounds are not separated from the liquid.
Neri-zake: A kind of white sake.
Nigori-zake: A kind of inferior sake in which the grounds have not been strained off—same as moromi-zake
Saka-bayashi: A green bamboo or flag erected in front of a sake brewery for a sign.
Saka-bitari: A person soaked with sake; a sot, a drunkard
Sake-bukuro: A bag used for straining Sake in breweries.
Sake-bune: a large vat used in making sake
Saka-dai: the price of sake
Saka-daru: a wine-cask, a sake-tub
Sake-gura: A house in which sake is stored.
Saka-hadzure: one at a wine party who avoids drinking
Saka-kabu: a license from the government to produce sake
Saka-kigen: the spirits, or excitement produced by drinking wine
Saka-mori: a wine-party, entertainment, feast, banquet
Sakana: Any kind of food taken with sake; fish
Sakate: money for buying sake, drink-money
Sake-toji: One acquainted with the art of brewing sake, a brewer.
Saka-tsubo: A sake jar, a wine jar.
Sake-unjo: The tax or duty levied by government on the manufacturers of sake.
Saka-ya: A brewery, a shop where sake is sold, a grog-shop.
Sake: A fermented liquor brewed from rice—wo kamosu, to brew sake—ni yo, to be drunk—no uye ga warui hito, one who behaves disorderly because of drink—ni oboreru, to be addicted to drink
Sake-dzuki: one fond of sake, a lover of wine, a toper
Sake-nomi: A drunkard, a wine-bibber, toper
Sasa: Same as sake, used only by women
Sasa-no-ha: A name given to sake, or Japanese ardent spirits.
Shiromma: A kind of inferior Sake, same as Moromi zake.
Shu-ki: The taste, or smell of sake.
*************
The Jewish Messenger (NY), February 28, 1873, stated, “Japanese dealers in spirits are beginning to brand their saki rubs with various inscriptions, to entire sailors to buy the pernicious stuff they contain. One brand is described as ‘Best brewed saki saved one’s life.”
From May 1 to November 2, 1873, the Vienna’s World’s Fair was held in Vienna, Austria. Over 7 million people attended this grand event. Japan received an invitation in 1871 to display at the Fair, and they decided to attend, to boost their international reputation and help establish a market for their goods. The Japanese exhibition would display the most important products of the various prefectures, which included Sake, the first time Sake took such a visible international role.
After this Fair, Japan participated in numerous such international expositions. Japan, and 36 other countries, would exhibit at the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition, from May 10 to November 10. Almost 10 million people attended this event, and Japan brought a variety of Sakes for their display.
For the Exhibition, the Japanese Commission published an Official Catalogue of the Japanese Section: And Descriptive Notes on the Industry and Agriculture of Japan. The catalogue stated, “Class 660.—Alcohol and Malt Liquors. ‘Sake’ or, as it is sometimes called, the rice wine, forms the principal and almost the only alcoholic beverage of the country. It is made exclusively of rice. In preparing the ferment the rice is washed, steamed during several hours, and spread out on mats to lower the temperature; afterwards it is kept in a warm room for several days, where it is mixed with a certain quantity of rice covered with fungi; these latter grow rapidly over the whole surface of the rice. The fermenting wort is made of fresh rice, also steamed, and mixed with water and a certain percentage of ferment in small tubs. A large coop is filled with these mixtures, and kept for about eight days at a certain temperature, which is maintained by introducing a vessel filled with hot water into it. The wort first gets' a sour taste, whereupon the temperature is lowered; at a later period the taste becomes bitter, and then the wort is quickly cooled, so as to stop further fermentation. In January the real brewing begins. Again fresh rice is steamed, washed with a considerable percentage of both the ferment and the wort, mixed with a sufficient quantity of water. The whole is then transferred into big vats, frequently stirred, and left for about 20 days, at the expiration of which period it usually acquires a vinous taste. The mash is now placed in bags and pressed; and the liquid runs out into casks, where it settles, whence it is tapped when quite clear. The clear liquid is then heated up to a certain point, and kept in large butts. This sake is generally drunk hot at meals. The residues and the spoiled sake are distilled and the alcoholic liquid used for making the ‘mi-rin,’ or sweet liquor. The total production of ‘sake’ in 1874 is estimated at 6,501,083 hectolitres; that of certain inferior kinds of sake at 127,446 hectolitres; that of brandy at 60,557 hectolitres; and, finally, that of sweet alcohol liquors at 56,712 hectolitres."
The Philadelphia Inquirer, February 2, 1875, mentioned that in China, "They have a kind of wine made from rice, but it is simply 95 percent alcohol, not like the Japanese 'sake' which, though made from rice, too, is very much like sherry." China made "sake" for thousands of years before Japan did, but it didn't become the hugely popular drink that it eventually become in Japan.
During this period, the price of rice in the U.S. was considered an obstacle to brewing Sake. Le Meschacebe (LA), July 24, 1875, published an intriguing article on the expense of potentially brewing Sake in the U.S. “Rice, like other grain, can be manufactured into an intoxicating drink, and this is largely done in the different countries of East. In China it goes by the name of shamshoo, and in Japan by the name of saki. In the United States it commands too high a price to be used in that way when other grain is cheaper.” This is probably the first mention anywhere of the potential of Sake brewing in the U.S., although it was thought to be cost-prohibitive.
In addition, with less than 150 Japanese living in the U.S., there was little incentive to brew Sake in the U.S., especially if rice was such a costly ingredient. Importing Sake was cheaper, and only a small amount was needed to satisfy the tiny amount of resident Japanese. Although many Americans might have heard of Sake before, very few probably had tasted it, so there was no market for it.
For a time, a number of sources wrongfully believed that Sake was distilled, rather than fermented. The St. Louis Republican (MO), October 22, 1876, attempted to correct this error, writing that, “… saki, a fermented liquor manufactured from rice, and in character something between ale and wine. Some writers have fallen into the error of describing saki as a distilled liquor, but we were assured that this is not correct, and that it is made by a process somewhat similar to brewing. It is not disagreeable in flavor, but has a somewhat larger percentage of alcohol than our malt liquors, and exhilarates more quickly. Indeed, in this respect, it is somewhat similar to champagne. It is served hot from small porcelain vases, and it may be said to be the national drink of the Japanese.”
The Mariposa Gazette, November 24, 1877, published an article about the home life in Japan, stating, “The Japanese usually partake of three meals a day. The noon meal is more substantial than in the early morning, but that at evening, after the labors of the day are over, is the chief. Many spend hours over their evening cups and dishes. At this time probably a majority drink sake in greater or less quantity. The drink is brewed from rice, and contains from two to eight per cent of alcohol.” I suspect the information about the alcohol content is erroneous, as Sake is usually is in the double digits, over 14%.
According to the 1880 census, there were only about 146 Japanese living in the U.S., and 86 of them lived in California, with 63 in San Francisco. Ten years later, the 1890 census found there were 2038 Japanese in the U.S., with 1147 of them living in California.
The New Ulm Weekly Review (MN), March 2, 1881, published an excerpt from a book review of Unbeaten Tracks in Japan by Isabella Bird, an explorer, naturalist, writer and photographer who had traveled to Japan. It was noted, “--sake, or rice beer, a straw-colored fluid of a faintish taste and smell, most varieties of which contain from 11 to 17.5 of alcohol.” In addition, the article provided some information on Sake production, mentioning that the Japanese have used pasteurization for hundreds of years. The article continued, “Sake, it seems, ought to have five distinct tastes—sweetness, sourness, sharpness, bitterness and astringency, together with a slight trace of the flavor of fusel oil... It is frequently drunk hot, and, as a rule, is taken before what the Japanese consider the substantial part of the repast.” However, Bird found Sake to be "insipid, sickly and nauseous" and she wasn't much of a fan of Japanese cuisine either.
The New York Tribune (NY), November 5, 1882, published an interesting, albeit brief, article on the Sake brewing process in their Science For The People column. The article was taken from a paper written by Professor R.W. Atkinson of Tokyo. This seems to indicate an interest in Sake beyond the basic cultural items.
The Morning Journal & Courier (CT), December 4, 1883, also provided some intriguing information about Sake in Japan. The article mentioned, “…in the center was a laqueur tray containing bottles of saki, the national liquor in Japan, and decorated china cups. This saki is distilled from rice (I judge there is no limit to the number of ways in which the natives utilize rice), and is universally drunk even by the women. It is said that at certain seasons of the year out of every ten men in the island go to bed at night really intoxicated; but the effect is so mild in comparison with that of whiskey in our own country and opium in China that the habit is not very much condemned. At weddings twenty-seven different brands of this saki are served, and to decline to drink is gross discourtesy.” 27 different brands!
Briefly, the Representative (WI), March 29, 1887, mentioned, "The favorite alcoholic beverage of the Japanese is sake. It is distilled from fermented rice, and has a taste resembling whisky."
Then, the Sacramento Daily Union (CA), April 18, 1887, noted, “Rice Beer —The Japanese brew their sake in the following manner: Malt is made from the rice called koji, submitting the clean and shelled grains to steam and rendering them gelatinous in consistence. Cooled down some yeast is added, and the mass is then fermented in a room at 40° celsius, being frequently stirred to let the carbonic acid gas free. This is done in flat tanks which have a steam coil. With the addition of water the mass is fermented during five or six days, and after being filtered is ready for consumption.”
The Los Angeles Herald (CA), August 24, 1887, printed an article about holidays in Japan, stating, “Buckets, barrels and porcelain jars are everywhere overflowing with new saki, which everybody drinks, and yet to the credit of these people be it said there is little drunkenness.”
Sake dangers?? The Sacramento Daily Union (CA), September 17, 1887, claimed that Sake was "dangerous from the large proportion of fusil oil contained in it." Fusel oils are found in most alcoholic beverages, but if the levels are too high, they can make people sick. Later information does not seem to indicate that Sake ever had dangerous levels of fusel oils and that this allegation was false.
The Springfield Daily Republic (OH), November 1, 1887, and a number of other newspapers across the country, published an article titled Drinks Of All Nations. The article discussed the drinking habits of numerous countries, from China to the Middle East, though the article was trying to prove the proposition that "The easily governed nations drink no strong liquors." It's an extremely condescending and racist article. For example, it says: "The Japs are the most encouraging examples that the east presents of a nation progressing from Asiatic to a European plane of civilization."
As for Sake consumption, the article noted: “No nation in Asia drinks so persistently and steadily as do the Japanese. The average Jap consumes about half a pint of sake or rice beer with each meal—a pint and a half per day--saying nothing about further social indulgence in the evening. Both men and women drink sake by the pint daily, and think no harm of it, either.”
The Rockford Daily Register (IL), December 17, 1887, noted, “A beer distilled from rice and known as ‘saki’ is in general use among them. This saki is prepared for drinking by heating in kettles and is sipped from pretty little bows or cups, the same as is tea.”
The Healdsburg Tribune, Enterprise and Scimitar (CA), September 1, 1888, mentioned, “While tea and sake flowed freely all were happy, peaceful, friendly, and courteous to one another, the most advanced sake-drinker being only a little redder, a little happier, and giggling a little more steadily than any one else.”
Sake production in Japan, The Iron County Register (MO), February 28, 1889, reported that there were 18,153 Sake breweries in Japan, producing over 140 Million gallons annually, and a population that was less than 38 million. That equates to about 3.7 gallons of Sake per person.
Sake brewery transformed into a church! The Honolulu Advertiser (HI), June 18, 1889, detailed Reverend E.G. Porter, who gave an address to the Japanese on Sunday evening where “he told them of the wonderful and rapid changes going on in Japan.” He also stated, “When Japanese are converted to Christianity, their conduct shows the sincerity of their faith. One saki distiller turned his distillery into a church and the barrels into seats.”
The Evening Repository (OH), July 2, 1889, briefly mentioned, “Saki, or rice beer, is produced in Japan to the extent of 150,000,000 gallons annually.”
Sake consumption leading to red hair? The Pittsburgh Dispatch (PA), November 3, 1889, mentioned once again the intriguing Sake legend, connecting red hair and Sake. “There is a tradition in Japan that the man who drinks too much sake, or Japanese brandy, acquires a redness of hair,..." This legend was also mentioned in The Salt Lake Herald, November 3, 1889 and in April 1896.
From 1890 to 1900, there was an explosion in growth of Japanese residents in the U.S. The census revealed that the Japanese population had expanded ten times, to a total of 24,326, with 10,151 of them living in California. When Hawaii was included, the total Japanese population rose to 85,437.
The Watertown Daily Times (NY), January 4, 1890, reported on an incident in January 1877 where a steamer, the City of Peking, found a Japanese junk adrift at sea. The ship belonged to Ha-Rodadi, and was partly loaded with rice and saki (“Japanese whisky”).
Sake consumption decreasing in Japan. The Evening Bulletin (CA), August 1, 1890, noted that, "A revolution is taking place in the drinking habits of the Japanese. The rice brandy called ‘saki,’ which had long been their national beverage, was being supplanted by beer brewed after the German method. In Osaka, the number of beer saloons had increased from thirteen to almost six hundred in the last four years, while the number of resorts where ‘saki’ was sold has fallen off. Years ago, the Japanese used to drink 130 million gallons of ‘saki’ annually.”
It was interesting to note that the Sausalito News (CA), January 29, 1892, noted, “Sake drinking, according to a writer in the "American Antiquarian," is one of the great curses of Japan. In 1879, the amount of rice converted into sake amounted to 15,000,000 bushels. Pledges to abstain from the habit are frequent among the picture-offerings in Japanese temples.” However, no additional details were given to explain why it was said to be a curse.
The Cleveland Leader (OH), April 3, 1892, briefly stated, “Saki is a light sherry, and is distilled from rice, but is more potent than it seems.” Sake was often compared to Sherry, and there are some similarities between the two beverages.
I was fascinated to learn that the first legal Sake brewery in the U.S. was almost established in a very unlikely location: Chicago! Hawaii, California or another West Coast location would have seemed a more logical starting place, but it appears the nature of the person involved trumped location.
In 1883, Jokichi Takamine, a famous Japanese chemist, worked at the Japanese Department of Agriculture & Commerce and concentrated on Sake brewing. His mother's family owned a Sake brewery so that might have been the impetus for his concentration in this field. He wanted to know how koji transformed starches into sugars. In his researches, he eventually found a way to grow koji on wheat bran rather than rice. This ultimately led to the creation of a process to transform starches into sugars, from any grain, that was cheaper and quicker than the usual malting process used by whiskey distillers.
In December 1890, Takamine and his family moved from Japan to Chicago, although in 1891, he would move to Peoria, Illinois. Takamine founded the Takamine Ferment Company, a company which endeavored to produce whiskey with koji rather than malt. This would allegedly make whiskey less expensive to produce. Besides this unique whiskey project, Takamine was soon connected to another intriguing endeavor.
In the Muncie Evening Press (IN), April 4, 1892, they briefly reported that, “A syndicate of wealthy Japanese are to establish a large ‘sake’ brewery in Chicago, with a capital of $250,000.” That is a huge amount of money, equivalent to almost $8.5 Million today. Such an investment would have created a huge brewery, especially considering that later U.S. Sake breweries would often start with only $50,000 to $100,000.
The next day, the Daily Inter Ocean (IL), April 5, 1892, provided much more detail, in an article entitled, "Sake for Chicagoans--Japanese Will at Once Establish a Brewery with an Unpronounceable Name." The article reported, “A letter from Yokohama states that leading Japanese capitalists of that city and a party of Japanese in Chicago are completing the necessary arrangements for the establishment in Chicago of a Japanese sake brewery, with a capital of $250,000. The brewery is to be called ‘Takamine Shurm Jozo Kaisha.’ The President of the company will probably be Takamine Jokichi, ex-chief of the analysis section in the agricultural and chemical department of Tokio Unniversity. About one-half of the necessary capital has been subscribed.”
The article was incorrect in the name of the proposed brewery, which actually was "Takamine Shurui Jozo Kaisha" (“Takamine Alcoholic Drinks Brewing Company”). At this time, there were very few, if any, Japanese living in Chicago as Japanese immigration to Chicago generally didn’t start until the later 1890s. So, this brewery would likely be exporting all of their Sake to California and Hawaii, and maybe even Japan, and not producing it for locals.
Two days later, the Pittsburgh Dispatch (PA), April 7, 1892, reprinted this article, though under a better title, "Sake for Chicago People--Japanese Capitalists Organize to Establish a Factory for Their Beverage." The Rochester Daily Republican (IN), April 7, 1892, briefly reported on this matter, adding their own comment, “Sake is probably a temperance drink intended for such visitors to the world’s fair as are prohibitionists, who like to ‘take a little something for the stomachs sake,’ according to scriptural injunction.”
However, it was the temperance faction that voiced opposition to the plans for a Sake brewery in Chicago. The Decatur Daily Democrat (IN), April 8, 1892, alleged that this new brewery would be doom for the city. “If the Congress of the United States had the interests of the people at heart this thing would be forbidden before it gets a foot hold, but Congress will do nothing of the kind, no matter how much appealed to unless indeed the patrons and promoters of the ‘great American industry’ of beer making should see their craft is in danger and should step in and forbid it, which is sincerely to be hoped they will. Even Satan inadvertently brings about the overthrow of evil occasionally. This is a case in which the old, oft repeated quotation applies: ‘I hear a lion in the lobby roar, say, Mr. Speaker shall I shut the door and keep him out or, shall I let him in, and trust to luck to get him out again?” Was this a case of racism, or were they opposed to all alcohol?
In support of their fears, they also noted, “Had lager beer been prohibited at its incipiency American today would have been a comparatively temperate country, but that deceitful drink which lures a man on until he has lost control of his will and so blinds him that he does not see his danger, is the gigantic curse of this or any other country where it is used.” This would seem to indicate that their fears concerned all forms of alcohol, though we can't also ignore that there might have been at least a touch of racism as well. A single Sake brewery certainly didn't seem to pose a dire threat, especially as nearly all of it would be exported out of the city.
There was another article about this proposed Sake brewery in the Wilmington Weekly Star (NC), April 15, 1892. It didn't add any additional facts but mentioned that, “From the name and the amount of cash it takes to run it, Japanese beer (which they mean Sake) must be quite a complicated beverage.”
The last article I located about this proposed Sake brewery was in the Oregonian (IL), April 19, 1892, which reported on the possibility of the sake brewery. They alleged, “The wine is said to be in high favor with the Chicago citizens,..”, referring to Sake as a wine. It was also said that half of the estimated stock, $250,000, had already been paid. Shinize Tetsukichi, a specialist of the agriculture and commerce department, had also been invited to superintend the brewery, and he departed from Japan on March 27. The article also noted, “This may account for the large quantities of rice forwarded to Chicago.”
I'll note that the name "Shinize Tetsukichi" appears to be incorrect, and it should be "Tetsukichi Shimidzu." The Chicago Chronicle (IL), May 10, 1896, provided his obituary, and it noted that he went to Chicago in 1892 and worked for Takamine. Shimidzu became the director and chief chemist of the Takamine Ferment Company. It also appears he was responsible primarily for the production of whiskey with Takamine's new process, and there was no mention of a proposed Sake brewery in the obituary.
Unfortunately, for unknown reasons, it seems plans for the brewery never came to fruition. Did the financing fall through? Was the temperance faction successful in preventing the brewery from opening? It seems strange that the fate of this large proposed project wasn't apparently reported in any newspaper. It's possible that due to all the work Takamine was doing with the whiskey industry, that he decided he wouldn't have sufficient time to also operate a Sake brewery. It remains a curious mystery.
It's fascinating to consider what might have happened to the Sake industry in the U.S. if this Sake brewery had started in Chicago. Would Sake have become a more popular drink? Would other cities have decided to create their own Sake breweries to compete with Chicago?
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